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JAPANESE PRINTS A MILLION QUESTIONS TWO MILLION MYSTERIES |
Ukiyo-e Prints浮世絵版画 |
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Port Townsend, Washington |
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INDEX/GLOSSARY
Aoi THRU Bl |
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The negative image of the iris
posted at were used in January and February. |
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TERMS FOUND ON THIS PAGE:
Aoi, Aragoto, Arashi Kitsusaburō II,Aratame, Araumi, Ariake andon, Asagao, Asanoha, Asanohamon, Ashikaga Yorikane, Ategami, Atozuri, Augustus the Strong,
Awase, Ayame,
Bamboo &
Sparrows (Takesuzume), Bandō Hikosaburō
III,
Bangasa,
Bekkō, Bengara, Benibana, Beni-e, Beni-girai, Ben(zai)ten, Bero-ai, Bijin, Bishamon, Bishamonkikkō and Blue and white porcelain
葵, 荒事, 嵐橘三郎, 改, 荒海, 有明行灯, 朝顔, 麻の葉,
麻の葉文, 足利頼錦, 当て紙, 後摺, 袷, 菖蒲,
馬琴 竹, 竹雀, 三世坂東彦三郎,五世坂東彦三郎,
坂東三津五郎, 坂東しうか,
番傘,
馬連, 鼈甲, 紅花, 紅絵, 紅嫌い, 弁(財)天, ベロ藍, 美人, 毘沙門 and 毘沙門亀甲
あおい, あらごと, あらし.きつさぶろう, あらため, あらうみ, ありあけあんどん, あさがお, あさのは, あさのはもん, あしかが.よりかね, あてがみ, あとずり,
アウグストⅡ世, あわせ, あやめ,
ばきん, たけ, ばんどう.ひこさぶろう, ばんどう.ひこさぶろう, ばんどう.みつごろう, ばんどう.しうか,
ばんがさ,
べにばな, べにえ, べにぎらい,べん(ざい)てん, びじん, びしゃもん and びしゃもん.きっこう |
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One more note about this page and all of the others on this site: If two or more sources are cited they may be completely contradictory. I have made no attempt to referee these differences, but have simply repeated them for your edification or use. Quote anything you find here at your own risk and with a whole lot of salt. |
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TERM/NAME |
KANJI/KANA |
DESCRIPTION/ DEFINITION/ CATEGORY Click on the yellow numbers to go to linked pages. |
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Aoi |
葵
あおい
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Hollyhock - often used as a decorative motif or as a family crest or mon. The hollyhock is a native Japanese plant which came to be associated with the Kamo Shrine in Kyōto and through that connection it acquired a sacred significance. Because of that quite a few families devoted to that shrine adapted the motif as their own personal crests.
Source: The Elements of Japanese Design by John Dower (pp. 58-59)
Taxonomy, morphology and semiotics are all concepts I have trouble grasping - among a whole host of others. That is why I struggle over almost each and every entry I have made on these pages. For what seems like ages I have accepted that aoi (葵) is as Dower states the simple hollyhock. In this case the Alcea rosea. However, as I started to dig deeper I found that the hollyhock is often referred more specifically to as the tachiaoi (立葵 or たちあおい) and no matter how much I looked I couldn't find leaves which looked enough like the ones in the crests to the left. That is until I ran across another aoi, the futaba aoi (双葉葵 or ふたばあおい) which is the Asarum caulescens. We know it as wild ginger.
The image of the plant is from the web site operated by Shu Suehiro at: http://www.botanic.jp/index.htm
The Matsudaira (松平 or まつだいら), a "Patronymic name of a certain number of families, related to the Tokugawa...[徳川 or とくがわ]" used several variations of this crest as their own.
Quote from: Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan, by E. Papinot, published by Tuttle, 1992, p. 355.
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Clad in creepers with a belt of mistletoe, Driving red leopards, followed by striped civets, Chariots of magnolia, banners of cassia wood, Clad in stone orchid, with a belt of Asarum...
Above is a photo of the Tokugawa crest at Nikko taken by Fg2 and posted at commons.wikimedia.org.
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Aragoto |
荒事
あらごと |
Rough style: "The
expression aragoto is an abbreviation of aramushagoto, which means
litterally "the reckless warrior matter". This is in fact a Kabuki bombastic
style exagerrating all the aspects of the role (acting, wig, make-up (kumadori),
costumes, dialogues, oversized swords) to portray valiant warriors, fierce
gods or demons. This style was created in Edo by Ichikawa Danjûrō I and is
considered a "familly art" for this line of actors. It is the opposite style
of the soft wagoto created by Sakata Tōjûrō I in Kamigata." This quote is taken directly from the Kabuki 21 web site. (Click on the yellow highlighted link to be taken to their home page. The quote is from their Kabuki Glossary: A thru C page.) Personally I consider this the best site in English to be found on the Internet. Maybe the best in any language. This is a resource which should be used by anyone and everyone interested in kabuki/theatrical prints/Japanese culture in general. Thanks Kabuki 21!
The image to the left is an actor in the role of the priest Narukami by Toyokuni III. |
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Arashi Kitsusaburō II |
嵐橘三郎
あらし.きつさぶろう |
Kabuki actor (1788-1837). Aka as Arashi Tokusaburō and Arashi Rikan II. 1 |
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Aratame |
改
あらため |
Censor's seal used between 1853 and 1857. It means "examined." |
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Araumi |
荒海
あらうみ |
A decorative pattern of roiling waves and foam. The image to left has been sent to us by an anonymous collector in Switzerland. Thanks! |
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Ariake andon |
有明行灯 ありあけあんどん |
A morning lantern. 'Ariake' represents the moon left in the sky at dawn. |
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Asagao |
朝顔
あさがお |
Morning glory.
The photograph of the white morning glories comes from a web site run by someone who calls herself Paghat the Rat Girl. It is a wonderful site and I feel a kinship with her because she marries natural beauty with literary beauty, folklore and history. This is very much what I am trying to do for Japanese prints. Click on the photo to go to her specific page on morning glories and then explore the rest of her site. It is wonderful and who doesn't love nature?
The details above and below the photograph are from a print by Kuniyoshi. Click on the number to the right to go to that page. 1
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The morning glory or Ipomoea nil : Supposedly May 1, 1753 Linnaeus named this genus Ipomoea, but so far I don't know why or how he chose this name. I say supposedly because the history of plant names has more twists and turns than the vine itself. Actually it may have been 1763, but that is not the point of this entry.
Last night, January 29, 2008, I was reading Japanese Tales which was edited and translated by Royall Tyler. (Pantheon Books, 1987.) He made a reference to the use of morning glory seeds as a diarrhetic. I slept on that and this morning I started thinking about that passage. During my younger days I often heard that morning glory seeds were used as a hallucinogen. The same was said to be true of the wild woodrose. Carlos Castenada in his Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge sang the praises of plants as a vehicle for spiritual expansion. His books were extremely popular with a large section of the college crowd. Aldous Huxley told us about The Doors of Perception. Then there was toad licking. Even the Simpsons had an episode about that. But nowhere, not here, not there, were morning glories ever referenced as a diarrhetic.
We all know the basis of folk medicine and how it frequently did the job. Today we live in a society divided into various factions some of which believe heart-and-soul in the 'natural path' while others rely completely on chemically engineered pharmaceuticals. The third way is probably more common. However, despite all of the marvels of the Internet I could find no direct references to the use of crushed morning glory seeds as a diarrhetic even though I probed to the depths and bowels of each and every search engine available to me.
The story which Royall Tyler translates so capably mentions other ingredients combined with the crushed morning glory seeds: Salted fish and wine which was made both "...cloudy and sour." Perhaps that combination was just enough to do its magic. I remain skeptical and don't plan on performing any experiments on myself or anyone else for that matter. Maybe it is just a story.
The source of Tyler's translation is from the Konjaku monogatrishū (今昔物語集 or こんじゃくものがたりしゅう) or "Tales of Times Now Past" from ca. 1100. |
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Asanoha |
麻の葉
あさのは |
Hemp: A common stylized motif used in family crests. "Often identified as one of the five basic crops or 'grains' of ancient China, the hemp or flax plant played both sacred and profane roles in Japan."
Quoted from: The Elements of Japanese Design by John Dower, p. 58.
Although the examples I am able to show here look like stars Dower does show a couple of mons which are far closer to a realistic representation of the plant. Also note the entry immediately below this one for comparison.
According to Susan Briscoe in her Japanese Quilt Blocks to Mix & Match: Over 125 Patchwork, Applique, and Sashiko Designs (published by Kodansha America, 2007, p. 98) the asanoha/hemp design was "Associated particularly with babies and children... [and] was stitched for protection." |
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Asanohamon |
麻の葉文
あさのはもん |
A repetitive 'six pointed star' decorative pattern based on a stylized hemp plant. The top example is a detail from a print by Eizan and the bottom one from a print by Kunichika.
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Ashikaga Yorikane |
足利頼錦 あしかが.よりかね |
Historical figure who appears in kabuki 1 |
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Ategami |
当て紙 あてがみ |
Rebecca Salter in her glossary at the end of Japanese Woodblock Printing (p. 120) defines ategami as "a sheet of shiny paper placed between baren and print during printing".
Tōshi Yoshida and Rei Yuki in their Japanese Print Making: A Handbook of Traditional & Modern Techniques (pp. 70-71): "The baren should not be moved at once in a single long stroke - as, for example, from the right to the left end of the sheet - but with a stroke not longer than nine inches. In moving the baren, care must be taken that the direction of the fiber of its bamboo-sheath wrapping is in accordance with that of the fibers in the paper, so that the paper may not be peeled off in rubbing. Sometimes a sheet of smooth paper, called an ategami, is placed over the sheet that is being printed in order to protect it. During the rubbing, any singles area of the paper will be passed over many times, but this will cause no trouble, for the amount of pigment on the block is limited, and all of it will be taken up by the paper. While the work is in progress, the result of the printing may be judged from the back as the paper absorbs the pigment. Usually the color penetrates about one-half of the thickness of the paper."
It is claimed that ategami is stronger than tracing paper, water resistant and that it doesn't wrinkle or tear during the printing process. |
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Atozuri |
後摺 あとずり |
Late edition: Right off, I have to tell you that I am not completely clear as to the meaning of atozuri. Of course, in principal it is simple: A late edition is a late edition. But what exactly does that mean? Does it mean any printing after the first few editions and if so have where does one draw the line? Almost all posthumous printings would be considered late - but only if the original blocks had been printed while the artist was still alive. ¶Early and original printings - some of them de luxe - are easy to discern - or so one would think. However, even here it is extremely difficult for the novice or dilettante to make these distinctions. For example, sometimes the publishers would strengthen the colors of a print as the blocks were wearing down. They would overcompensate for the loss of line and in effect would dazzle the untrained eye. (But even this is not always true.) Earlier printings, by comparison, would appear 'fainter' while, in fact, they are simply produced more carefully and delicately. Early editions are called shozuri (初摺 or しょずり). ¶Perhaps the most irritating problem associated with late editions is the one of commercial greed, deception or fraud. Artists who are in vogue fetch higher prices even for late or posthumous printings. If a dealer has priced a late Hiroshige at X and the buyer is willing to pay the price then that is between them. But if the buyer is a greenhorn and X is, frankly speaking, way overpriced then I wish someone could have stepped in and stopped the deal. But that is my opinion.
In 1978 there was a publication from Nara University which defined an atozuri as a printing from a block which has been changed slightly. That seems fair enough because the shozuri would have been printed from the original block.
Another caveat: There seems to be a lot of contradictory information out there on the Internet. Hopefully a highly respected scholar will clear this up for all of us. |
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Roger Keyes in Japanese Woodblock Prints: A Catalogue of the Mary A. Ainsworth Collection (p. 107) deals directly with the subject of early and late editions mainly through the use of Hiroshige examples. "The earliest impressions of HIroshige's Shōno, for example, have very light grey rain, and the distant row of bamboo is much lighter than the nearer row."
Below is probably a slightly later example, but still one which could be called early.
Keyes continued: "In later impressions this distinction is lost. The prints of both rows are printed with dark grey and the effect is more violent and stormy."
"Early impressions of Shōno have the name of the publisher and the name of the series on the umbrella at the right."
"Many late impressions lack this writing, although in some impressions it is clear that the letters were not removed, they were simply not inked; the second late impression of the print in the Ainsworth collection shows faint traces of the letters accidentally embossed on the umbrella." [The detail below is not from that collection.]
Keyes cites several other example, but remarkably striking is the one of "Fireworks at Ryōgoku Bridge". "Some effects in landscape prints were achieved mainly by the application and wiping of colors on the blocks. The earliest impression of Hiroshige's Fireworks at Ryōgoku Bridge have light around the bursting fireworks, while later impressions are printed with a uniformly dark sky as though the fireworks had just burst and gone out."
A few more thoughts: There are quite a few popular 20th century print artists where it would behoove the buyer to know what is an early and original printing and what is late. The cues are not always as obvious as they are between early and late Hiroshige editions. For example, titles, signatures and publisher's marks may differ considerably and sometimes be omitted altogether. Keep that in mind. Whether shopping in a store or flea market or similar location don't trust your eyes if you are looking at a print which is framed. The image might be right, but often it is what you can't see that counts. The matting may cover a title or lack thereof and that should be one of the factors which would make all the difference in pricing.
Many 20th century artists' woodblocks still exist and might still be in the possession of heirs or with the original publisher. That means that any time they want to they can run off a new edition. How much would those prints be worth vis a vis the originals?
The issue of late versus early editions is not a problem restricted to Japanese prints. Most of the Rodin sculptures one sees today - even in prominent museums - are from posthumous and possibly contemporary castings. Rodin died in 1917 and they are still cranking them out. Henry Moore on the other hand stipulated that all of the molds be destroyed either before or at the time of his death. There are no posthumous editions of his sculpture.
Years ago I knew a young man from a very wealthy family. He invited me over to see his newest acquisition - a Renoir bronze plaque of naked, female bathers. He had mounted it outside by his swimming pool. However, after a couple of drinks he fessed up that he had taken an original plaque on approval for a weekend from a legitimate art gallery, returned it on Monday and said it just wasn't right for what he wanted. What he didn't tell the dealer/owner was that he had made a mold of the plaque and then had his own bronze cast of the original made from that. That's what he had so proudly shown me. His very own Renoir bronze. You never really know, do you? |
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Augustus the Strong |
アウグストⅡ世 |
Elector of Saxony and King of Poland (1670-1733). Augustus had a passion for Chinese and Japanese porcelains, but was spending enormous sums on acquiring them. In fact they were worth more than their weight in gold. As a result he imprisoned the alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger who had escaped from Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia (普魯西 or ぷろしゃ). Böttger (ベトガー) was ordered to create gold to pay for Augustus's lavish lifestyle. However, in time it occurred to the Elector that it might be better if Böttger worked on re-creating hard paste porcelain. After years of trial and error he succeeded and the manufacture of 'true' porcelain was off and running at Meissen (マイセン). Although the secret of this product was referred to the arcanum and revealing it could mean a death sentence the news spread quickly and porcelain factories popped up in numerous competitive duchies and principalities. 1 |
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Tree years after Augustus died a statue was dedicated to him. He is shown in an idealized pose astride a rearing horse. By 2006 the Golden Rider was freshly gilded in time for the 800th anniversary of the founding of the Dresden. It seems particularly appropriate that this statue should be so flashy considering the fact that Augustus was originally spending much of his gold reserves to purchase Chinese and Japanese porcelains. It could even be said that fine East Asian porcelains were pound for pound more expensive than gold itself. The elector even had a special building constructed to house his ever-growing collection which by 1719 included more than 19,000 fine ceramic pieces from the Far East. He called this his Japanese Palace although it was a thoroughly baroque European structure. Augustus's son and successor stopped the grand plans for the use of the Japanese Palace However, the new elector did make two of his most distinguished ministers overseers of the Meissen factory and they dispensed exquisite local porcelains to foreign heads of state and their coteries as gift which have been termed "white gold."
The image above is a cropped detail of a photograph placed in the public domain by Kolossus. The full shot can be found at http://commons.wikimedia.org/. We would like to thank Kolossus for generously placing this in the public domain.
While Augustus may have no link to the world of ukiyo-e he does exemplify the European fascination for things both Chinese and Japanes. For example, in the 13th century when Marco Polo returned to Venicehe referred to certain Chinese ceramics as porcellana because they were reminiscent of the Italian word for cowrie shell which had a similar luminescence. It is the French who gave us the word 'porcelain'. |
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Awase |
袷 あわせ |
An awase is a lined, winter kimono. Its counterpart is the hitoe or unlined, summer kimono. |
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Traditionally four times a year the Japanese celebrated the seasonal changes by a formal change of clothes. For example, Spring officially ended with the Boy's Festival on the fifth day of the fifth month and Summer began on the sixth day. These changes were referred to as koromogae (衣替え or ころもがえ). "The seasonal change of dress was strictly observed by the Imperial Court since very early days, under fixed rules." During the Tokugawa era the government followed suit. "...people wore katabira [帷子 or かたびら] or summer unlined dress from May 5; awase or lined dress from September 1; wataire [綿入れ or わたいれ] or cotton stuffed dress from September 9, and again awase from April 1, the next year."
Source and quotes: Mock Joya's Things Japanese, p. 29. |
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Ayame |
菖蒲
あやめ馬琴 |
There are quite a few different terms describing iris plants and their flowers. Ayame refers to either the iris flower or the Siberian iris (Iris sanguinea).
The detail to the left is from a Hasui print. |
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梓
あずさ
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All of the images of the catalpa tree shown here are provided courtesy of Shu Suehiro at http://www.botanic.jp/plants-aa/amekis.htm.
Catalpa tree: A bow made from a catalpa was traditionally used to drive away evil spirits or in the case of shamans such as miko to draw them out and make them reveal themselves. "The catalpa bow with the hempen string is now less often seen in the north than its variants, the ichigenkin or one-stringed lute. In the past, however, it was clearly in widespread use. The literature of the Edo period contains many references to miko who, tapping the string of their catalpa bow with a bamboo rod, deliver a terrifying lament from a ghost in hell. That the use of this bow as a summoner of spirits is ancient is testified by the use of the word for catalpa bow, azusayumi, in the great eighth century anthology of poetry Manyōshū. Here it appears many times as the... epithet of the word yoru. Yoru is a verb meaning either 'to approach' or 'to possess'. From the close association between the two words we infer that when the bow gives forth its sound, spirits are compelled to approach and possess the waiting medium [or miko]. Both the bow and the one-stringed lute are probably simpler forebears of the koto, which we saw at the time of the Empress Jingo already to be the instrument used to summon deities." (Quoted from: The Catalpa Bow: A Study of Shamanistic Practices in Japan by Carmen Blacker, p. 148) |
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Baird, Merrily |
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Bakin |
馬琴
ばきん |
First I want to make something absolutely clear in hopes that this will assist future researchers who dabble at Japanese culture as I do: I have decided to put this entry under this author's popular name as opposed to any other family or acquired name. Why? Because no matter what book you look in chances are the index will reference him under any one of a number of possible listings - and not necessarily one beginning with the letter 'B'. This can be extremely confusing for beginner and might even prevent them from finding the information they are seeking. People should always look under each of the variations until they find what they want before moving on. For example, Bakin can be found under 'B" in the Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, under 'K' for Kyokutei in The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature and under "T" for Takizawa in Donald Keene's World Within Walls: Japanese Literature of the Pre-Modern Era 1600-1867. Chances are if I kept digging I might find other examples, but I feel confident that these three probably represent 95% plus of what there is to be found. That said... |
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Aston wrote in a History of Japanese Literature (p. 352) at the turn of the 20th century: "One of the few Japanese authors whose fame has penetrated to Europe is KIOKUTEI BAKIN (1767-1848). In his own country he has no rival. Nine out of ten Japanese if asked to name their greatest novelist would immediately reply 'Bakin.' Born in Edo the third son of a shogunal retainer he was a restless youth. For a while he was assigned to attend the son of his father's master. Later he studied with a physician and then with a Japanese scholar of Chinese. Bakin failed to finish his studies with either of these. For a time he was a fortune teller in Kanagawa near Yokohama, that is, until he lost everything in a flood. [Not a very good fortune teller, eh?] Destitute he returned to Edo where he met the novelist Santō Kyōden (山東京伝 or さんとうきょうでん) who took him into his own household. ¶Bakin published his first novel in 1791 in which he said he credited Kyōden as his master. Kyōden was so impressed with Bakin's work that he said "In twenty or thirty years I shall be forgotten." [Verrocchio, Leonardo's teacher, supposedly gave up painting and stuck to sculpture after seeing he work of his young apprentice. Vasari in his Lives of the Painters even said that Verrocchio was angry that Leonardo was so much better than he was.] ¶With Kyōden's help Bakin got a job as an assistant to a bookseller. While there he published another novel - this one illustrated by Hokusai "...was very successful." (Ibid., p. 353) Bakin was said to be a strapping fellow and was asked to join a group of wrestlers visiting the bookseller. The young author declined. His boss's uncle, the owner of a teahouse whish had connections with a brothel next door, wanted Bakin to marry his attractive daughter. According to Aston "Bakin refused disdainfully to become connected with a family which drew its income from this source. Brothel-keeping, he said, was no better than begging or thieving, and he must decline to disgrace the body he had received from his parents by such a marriage." [Very Confucian of him. This is interesting on another level too: Kyōden was no stranger to the pleasure districts. As a young man he published prints of courtesans, may have married two women who worked for brothels and published at least 15 novels which dealt with that subject. Is it any wonder that he and Bakin became arch-rivals?] ¶Instead of marrying into a family with connections to prostitution Bakin married the daughter of a wealthy widow of a shoe dealer and was adopted into as her heir into their family. (Ibid.) When Bakin's daughter was old enough to wed he handed over the business to his new son-in-law freeing himself for more time for writing. When he started going blind in his seventies he hired his son's widow "...as his amanuensis." (Ibid., p. 354)
Like Bakin who dictated to his daughter-in-law after he went blind Milton dictated to his daughters. This is from a print after Fuseli.
"He died at the age of eighty-one, after a career as an author of more than sixty years. The amount of saleable 'copy' produced by Bakin can have few equals in literary annals. His pen was never at rest, and the rapidity with which he composed may be inferred from the circumstances related by himself, that one of his novels (of about two hundred pages) was completed by him in a fortnight, to stay 'the demands of an importunate publisher." He is said to have written no fewer than two hundred and ninety distinct works, many of which were extremely voluminous. Some authorities put the figure still higher." (Ibid.)
Source and quotes from: A History of Japanese Literature, by William George Aston, published by William Heinemann, 1907.
Aston noted that "Bakin was not an amiable man. He is described as upright, but obstinate and unsociable. A single word which offended him made of him an enemy for life. Even Kiōden, to whom he owed so much, could not get on with him. The famous artist Hokusai, who illustrated many of his novels, had also reason to complain of his morose and intractable temper. Edmond de Goncourt, in his life of Hokusai, says that the quarrel between the painter and Bakin occurred in 1808, and was caused by the immense success of the illustrations to the Nanka no yume, of which Bakin was jealous. It was smoothed over by friends, but broke out again with great violence in 1811, when a continuation of that novel was brought out. Bakin accused Hokusai of paying no attention to his text, and demanded that the drawings should be altered. But the publishers had already engraved both text and pictures." Aston goes on to point out that this may have been the impetus for Hokusai publishing his own work without literary collaborations. [A better explanation for their tensions may be due to fact that both of them may possibly have been prima donnas. What do you think?]
Above is an adulterated illustration by Hokusai to Bakin's Nanka no yume.
Aston says that many people consider his Yumibari-tsuke (弓張月 or ゆみばりずき) from 1805 his masterpiece. "It professes to be an imitation of the Chinese romantic histories, but departs far more widely from historical truth, and is indeed a romance pure and simple, though a few of the personages have names taken from real history." Over 800 pages are devoted to the story of Hachirō Tametomo, a 12th century hero of Japanese lore. (Ibid., p. 355) ¶ In 1806 Bakin came out with his adaptation of the Chinese classic Journey to the West. In Japanese it is called Seiyuki (西遊記 or さいゆうき). [There is much to say about this great novel, but for now we have little to offer. Eventually we hope to add much more. For an incidental bit of information see our entry on jinmenju or the human-faced tree.] "He also translated the Shui-hsü-ch'uan (Sui-ko-den in Japanese)... The influence of these and other Chinese romances is very noticeable in the works of Bakin and his school." (Aston, p. 359) ¶ "The most famous of Japanese novels is the enormous work entitled Hakkenden [八犬伝 or はっけんでん]. Begun in 1814, it was not finished until 1841. In its original form it consisted of one hundred and six volumes, and even in the modern reprint [remember this is being written in 1907 or a little earlier] it forms four thick volumes of nearly three thousand pages." Aston was astounded by the Hakkenden's popularity when he found it so pedantic and tedious. Nevertheless, he said "The wood-engravers came daily for copy , and as soon as a part was ready it was printed off in an edition of ten thousand copies, creating a demand for paper which, we are told, appreciably affected the market-price of that commodity." (Ibid., pp. 360-1) |
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Bamboo (Take) |
竹
たけ |
One of the "Four Gentlemen" or Shikunshi which are flowers which mirror positive human traits. The other three are plum, orchid and chrysanthemum. Borrowed from the Chinese and linked to confucian concepts. 1 |
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Bamboo & Sparrows (Takesuzume) |
竹雀
たけすずめ |
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Bandō Hikosaburō III |
三世坂東彦三郎
ばんどう.ひこさぶろう |
Kabuki actor (1751-1828). 1 |
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Bandō Hikosaburō V |
五世坂東彦三郎
ばんどう.ひこさぶろう
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Kabuki actor (1833-77). He took this stage name in 1856. Extremely popular and versatile. Able to play a wide range of roles. 1, 2, 3, 4
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Bandō Mitsugorō III |
坂東三津五郎
ばんどう.みつごろう |
Kabuki actor (1773-1831). He received the name Mitsugorō in 1799. 1 |
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Bandō Shūka I |
坂東しうか
ばんどう.しうか |
Kabuki actor (1812-1855). He took this stage name in 1832. The 'Shūka" part is spelled only in kana characters. Posthumously he was named Bandō Mitsugorō V. One of the two most popular Edo actors in the 1840s & 1850s. |
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Bangasa |
番傘
ばんがさ |
A crude umbrella made with oiled paper which often carried advertising for a shop or other business. "The syllable ban (number) in the word bangasa derives from the fact that these cheap umbrellas were often numbered by rental shops for purposes of identitfication." Quote from Julia Meech's entry in Rain and Snow: The Umbrella in Japanese Art, cat. entry #17. |
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盤石 or 磐石
ばんじゃく |
Banjaku translates as a 'huge rock' or 'firmness'. They are the 'seat' or 'throne' upon which the 'lions of Buddha' are placed. Often Fudō Myōō stands or is seated on a banjaku. The fact that Fudō, who is referred to as adamantine, stands upon a base which is called 'firmness' can be no accident.
In the Dictionnaire Historique du Japon in an entry on Fudō Myōō it states in the 2002 edition, pp. 575-6: Il siège sur in rocher (banjaku 磐石, shitsushitsuza 瑟瑟座, śilā) image du Mont Sumeru (Shumisen 須弥山), qui est au centre de l'universe selon la cosmogonie indienne: c'est la montagne par excellence, dont le caractère essentiel est l'immobalité (acala signifie souvent montagne en sanskrit) et qui, dans le symbolisme bouddhique, représente le caractère immuable du Nirvāna. Ce rocher prend la forme du bûcher dressé pour le rite de réalisation mystique par le feu (gomahō... homa-viddhi), tel que le décrivent les textes rituels du Shugendō 修験道. On remarquera également que les roches sacrées (iwakura 岩倉 ou 磐座) sont souvent des lieux de cult du Fudō."
Image to the left is an altered image by Kuniyoshi showing Fudō standing on his banjaku. |
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Baren |
馬連
ばれん |
This is the most important tool used in woodblock printmaking. The printer rubs the back of a sheet of paper which has been laid down over an inked block.
Hiroshi Yoshida in his Japanese Wood-block Printing (p. 55) describes the origins of the baren: "Now let us consider the tools used in printing. The first in importance is the baren. The term now consists of two characters: ba meaning sheath (sheath of bamboo) and ren, succession. These may not be the original characters used. The term may be foreign to the soil. In Manchoukuo a kind of iris is known as ma-ren, and ma is often blurred into ba in Japanese. This plant may have been originally used in making this implement which has so acquired its name. The origin of the baren is not clear. Perhaps it was introduced into Japan by the Chinese who came over to Japan and cut Buddhist sutras on wooden blocks and printed from them in the Muromachi Period (1334-1572). But no mention of it is made in literature." Yoshida continued to say: "The baren is the soul of the printer. All the secret of print-making may be said to be contained in this circular pad used for rubbing in printing."
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Baren-sujizuri |
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Baren-sujizuri is the term which describes one of my favorite effects on Japanese prints. Not obvious on all of them occasionally these markings are made more pronounced as in the examples seen to the left. Here one can clearly see the touch points of the baren as it was applied in a circular motion to the back of the sheet lying against an inked board. The print is by Torii Kotondo (1900-76 鳥居言人 or とりい.ことんど).
These examples were sent to me by my good friend M.
Hiroshi Yoshida (Japanese Wood-block Printing, p. 112) wrote about this technique/effect: "This is a kind of printing in which lines produced by the baren are shown. The baren is so made as to easily produce baren-suji. In fact, it is in the nature of the pad to produce these lines on account of the angular projections of the cord contained in it, and these projections are essential in driving the pigment into the paper. But in olden times the printers were required not to show such lines in the print; it required long and laborious practice to eliminate these lines which were considered defects in the printing." A totally flat effect can easily be the result of multiple passes with the baren. "In order to produce baren-suji, it is better to use a small quantity of pigment on the block, and the printing should not be given too much strength, nor too many strokes." Yoshida continues: "For ordinary purposes it is best to work with the baren of eight-strand cord, having the fibre of its bamboo-sheath covering running in the same direction as that of the paper. But in case baren-suji are desired the baren of sixteen-strand cord should be used in the direction of the grain, or across it, or with a circular motion. If the paper is rubbed across the fibre, it is liable to peel, especially when too wet. This difficulty is overcome when the paper is hard. Thus it is necessary to take advantage of the time when the paper is dry to print baren-suji." On page 113 Yoshida notes the distinctions between different types of baren: "The baren with a sixteen-strand cord is rough and coarse; one with an eight-strand cord is more delicate. But one with a four-strand cord is hardly angular enough to be used for producing baren lines. It must also be bourne in mind that when the baren is fresh, the lines are more distinct, leaving white spaces between the lines. When the baren is old, the lines will be somewhat blurred." The artist/author also says that the baren-suji should be printed early "...before the paper is compressed with many impressions." Then Yoshida adds that, of course, this effect could be printed at the end according to look the printer is trying to achieve. On page 149 it states: "In order to give a soft effect the marks of the baren are also utilized. The repetition one on top of the other produces a soft tone. In order to obtain the effect of mist the baren marks which are made alike over the objects will prove very efficacious, giving these objects an appearance of receding into the distance." |
| Bat motif |
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By and large bats are used as a very positive motif indicating something propitious like happiness.
In the image to the left of the bat is paired with a blue and white manji, i.e., swastika motif. Happiness is joined here to long life.
The blue and white manji decorated under-robes are often seen in ukiyo-e prints featuring 'good' people as opposed to villains or as George W. Bush would say 'evil doers'.
This image was sent to us courtesy of our friend M. Thanks M! |
| Bekkō | 鼈甲
べっこう
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"Bekko-zaiku or tortoise-shell work is one of the handicrafts of Japan that developed in the earliest period, and reached its highest stage of perfection in Edo days."
"When the scale [i.e., the shell] is heated it becomes soft, and then the thin upper layer is peeled off. This thin layer which is almost transparent is used for making various artistic and valuable things. By pressing, it can be made to take various shapes."
"...the popular use of bekko seems to have developed in Tokugawa days in the 17th century when women's way of hair dressing changed.
Combs and kogai (hair fasteners came to be made of bekko. Kogai which was at first only a simple long stick became elaborate. There were kogai of silver, gold, ivory and other materials, but bekko kogai was the most expensive, as it had elaborate ornamental pieces at both ends, made to represent flowers, butterflies and other shapes."
Quotes from: Mock Joya's Things Japanese, p. 1.
Bekkō "...pieces are soaked in water for softning, layered, then shaped over wet wood and pressed between metal iron molds heated to between 100 and 150ºC (212º-304ºF). It can also be softened by heat before being molded into shape. These techniques are uniquely Japanese."
Quoted from: Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, vol. 8, p. 80, entry by Nakasato Toshikatsu. 1 |
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Bengara |
ベンガラ
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Bengara is the name of the deep red used on torii, bridges and other sacred elements at Shinto shrines. Its use was not restricted to these shrines, but it is there that it plays its most distinctive role. Bengara is the Japanese pronunciation of Bengal where an iron oxide rich soil was found which produces this particular color.
I want to thank a new contributor K. for bringing this term to my attention. Thanks K!
The doctored image to the left is from a print by Yoshitoshi. I altered it to emphasize the dramatic red of the bridge. 1 |
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Benibana |
紅花 べにばな
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Bengibana or safflower: On April 4, 2009 our great contributor 英渓 (Eikei) drew our attention to the Benibana Museum in Kahoku town (河北町 or かほくちょう) in the Yamagata prefecture. That spurred us to add this entry on the source of one of the great early colorants used in ukiyo prints. ¶ During the Edo period theses flowers were processed into cakes which were shipped to Kyōto to be used for cosmetics for the lips and cheeks and as fabric dye. Both yellow and red coloring was produced, but it was the latter which was the most expensive because it took ten times the amount needed for the yellow. ¶ Safflower based oni (黄丹 or おうに) or a yellow-red is still used for dyeing the ritual robes of the crown prince. Benibana was also used in the production of a special color to dye the lining of robes worn only by the Emperor. No one else is allowed to wear this color.
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Safflower was not native to Japan, but was imported from China around the same time the Japanese were adopting and adapting many of its neighbors cultural practices. One example is the use of certain colors used to represent court rankings. Nor was safflower native to China but had to be imported from areas to its west. In fact, it was used in ancient Egypt and clearly valued there too. "In Egypt, dye made from safflower was used to colour cotton and silk as well as ceremonial ointment used in religious ceremonies and to anoint mummies prior to binding. Safflower seeds and packets and garlands of florets have been found with 4000- year-old mummies (Weiss 1971). The oil was used as an unguent and for lighting." It was also uses as a purgative, to produce sweating to break fevers and in cooking in general from Africa to India. Carthamin dye was used in carpet weaving and "Hebrew writings since the 2nd century AD have described the use of tablets of carthamin dye for food colouring, rouge and medicine (Weiss 1983)." ¶In some locales it was used to prevent miscarriages or for fertility. "Until this century, soot from charred safflower plants was used to make kohl, the Egyptian cosmetic (Weiss 1983)." At times safflower would be substituted for saffron, the world's most expensive spice. "Until this century, when cheaper aniline dyes became available, safflower was mainly grown for dye. The water-soluble yellow dye, carthamidin, and a water-insoluble red dye, carthamin, which is readily soluble in alkali, can be obtained from safflower florets (Weiss 1983). Yellow florets contain little or no red dye (Smith 1996). Dye manufacture has virtually ceased in Asia, but dye is still prepared on a small scale for traditional and religious occasions." It is best to collect flowers in the morning, dry them in the shade and then soak them in acidulated water for 3 to 4 days to extract the dye.
Source and quotes for the above paragraph are from: "Safflower: Carthamus tinctorius L., by Li Dajue and Hans Henning-Mündel, The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Rome, 1996.
The references to Weiss 1983 are for E. A. Weiss, Oilseed Crops, Chapter 6, "Safflower", Longman Group Limited, Longman House, London, UK. Pp. 216-281.
The source for Smith 1996 is for J. R. Smith, Safflower, AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, p. 624
These images are shown courtesy of Shu Suehiro at http://www.botanic.jp/index.htm.
In an 1889 article entitled "The Industries of Japan: Together with an Account of Its Agriculture, Forestry, Arts, and Commerce" by Johannes Justus Rein (pp. 176-7) it states "We know now for certain that the saw-wort [i.e., safflower] was raised in Egypty more than 3,500 years ago, since Schweinfurth recognised it in the garland which Brugsch and Maspero, in 1881 found in the newly-discovered graves of the Pharoahs at Thebes, on the breast of Ahmes II., the conqueror of Hycsos."
See also our entry on sasabeni on our Ro thru Seigle index/glossary page. |
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Beni-e |
紅絵
べにえ |
An early form of hand painted Japanese print where the dominant color is the red derived from the petals of the safflower plant or dyer's thistle (Carthamus tinctorius).
Rebecca Salter notes that beni was a very fugitive color. It was "mixed with an acidic liquid derived from the half-dried outer layer of the stones of Japanese plums (ume) and allowed to ferment. The mixture is then dried in the sun into cakes. From around 1715 it was used in hand-colouring even though it was almost as expensive as gold. It seems the brushes used were not washed for that reason!"
Other cultures used equally or more expensive materials in producing artworks. The Europeans, for example, used lapis lazuli which was worth more than its weight in gold to make a celestial blue color.
Quoted from: Japanese Woodblock Printing, by Rebecca Salter, University of Hawai'i Press, 2001, p. 27.
To the left and below are three details from a single, beni-e print by Shigenaga illustrating a party of people gathered for cherry blossom viewing. Dating from the 1720s to 30s this is an extremely rare print. At some point we will devote a separate page to it where you will be able to see it in a larger format. This image has been sent to us courtesy of one of our contributors. For this we are immensely grateful. Truly!
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Beni-girai |
紅嫌い べにぎらい
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In The Passionate Art of Utagawa Utamaro Timothy Clark (text volume, p. 95) refers to "...the so-called beni-girai ('crimson avoiding') style."
'So-called' seems to be the key word here. So far I have been unable to find out anything about this term other than the fact that it describes a print which does not include red inks. Whether this is intentional as an aesthetic choice or for some other reason I haven't a clue nor am I sure does anyone else. This may simply be a term which could be applied very loosely. |
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Ben(zai)ten |
弁(財)天 べん(ざい)てん |
The only goddess among the Seven Propitious Gods. She is the patron of the arts and wisdom. One of the main shrines devoted to her is on Enoshima near Kamakura. 1 |
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Bero-ai |
ベロ藍
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The Japanese name for the Prussian or Berlin blue pigment. It was created by Heinrich Diesbach in 1704. This was first of the modern, artificial pigments. He was trying to make a new red at the time because much of this concoction contained cattle blood, but he ended up with a deep blue. By the 1820s this new color was being used in Japanese woodblock printmaking. 1 |
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Bijin |
美人
びじん
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The term bijin has always fascinated me because literally it means 'beautiful person', but strictly refers to women. The character 人 in isolation means 'man', 'person' or 'people', but combined with 美, the character for beautiful, it applies only to women. Why? Finally I found an plausible answer.
Kittredge Cherry in her Womansword (p. 19) states: "Beauty is female. 'I met a beauty today' generally means the speaker encountered a beautiful woman. Likewise, the Japanese talk about meeting a bijin, literally 'beauty-person' but actually used exclusively for beauties of the female persuasion. In contrast, gender is usually specified in various words for male beauties, such as 'beauty-man' (binan)." [美男 or びなん]
(However, Roger Keyes states it differently - and this is an author who I trust: "The word bijin is ungendered. It means 'beautiful person' and suggests sexual attraction, sometimes dangerous." Quoted from: Ehon: The Artist and the Book in Japan, published by the New York Public Library with the University of Washington Press, 2006, p. 64.)
Frank Turk in his Prints of Japan (p. 117) notes that Michener believed "...that during the period 1660-1860 pictures of beautiful women made up about 40 per cent of the total output of ukiyo-e..." Turk concurred.
Recently I told a friend that I was going to add an entry on bijin-ga. He said something about them only being pictures of prostitutes. I told him that was wrong, but not completely so. Since so many of the great beauties of their day portrayed by artists were frequently famous courtesans I could see why he believed that.
Julia Hutt in her essay "The Golden Age, 1780-1810" in Ukiyo-e to Shin Hanga: The Art of Japanese Woodblock Prints (p. 83) notes: "In the context of ukiyo-e art, the term bijin is used generically to refer to well-groomed women from many social levels employed in multifarious activities." She continues: "On the one hand are those which depict respectable women going about their daily business, such as carrying out mundane domestic activities or taking part in outings to view cherry blossoms, to the seaside or to a temple." On the other hand... Well, you can guess what those women were doing.
The Eizan details to the left are indeed images of the tayu - the highest class of courtesan - Misado of the Tama-ya. This was sent to us by our generous contributor E. Thanks E! |
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Bishamon |
毘沙門
びしゃもん |
One of the Seven Propitious Gods. He is a god of warfare. Also known as Tamonten (多聞天 or たもんてん). In India he was referred to as Vaīśravana, one of the four lokapala or 'world-protectors'. His region is that of the North.
The book illustration image to the left was sent to us by one of our correspondents, E. It is said to date from circa 1690 and is attributed to Yoshida Hambei from the "Nanto Daibutsen goengi". Thanks E! |
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"Dressed in armor, wielding a spear, and holding a pagoda in the upturned palm of his left hand [*], Bishamonten is a Buddhist guardian deity, one of the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō [四天王 or してんのう]). As one who protects Buddhism against natural disasters and human enemies, Bishamonten was described as having many attendants, all of whom could help those who call upon him: troubles will cease, wealth will increase, and all wishes will be fulfilled." In the Sutra of the Golden Light (金光明経 or こんこうみょうきょう) Bishamonten explains to the Buddha the advantages of reciting his wish-fulfilling mantra. Among its benefits it can free humans of suffering and bring them wealth and happiness. ¶ "Bishamonten, who was sometimes identified with Konpira, the Shinto deity of ships and sailors, displays the protean character of a deity who can assume different forms to protect and bless people in accord with their wishes."
Source and quotes from: Practically Religious: Worldly Benefits and the Common Religion of Japan, by Ian Reader and George Joji Tanabe, University of Hawaii Press, 1998, pp. 158-9.
* I cannot account for the differences between the image above and the description below it. The statue of Bishamon is holding the pagoda in its right hand and not its left. Perhaps the image has been reversed. Perhaps not. These kind of irksome disparities occur frequently and are difficult to reconcile. Also, note that the photo of this impressive wood sculpture was taken by 663Highland and posted at http://commons.wikimedia.org/. I altered the background to make figure stand out more.
Now for the right-hand-pagoda-holding Bishamon: "...guardian of the north, giver of wealth, and the stupa he holds in his right hand supposedly contains money. The centipede is associated with him." [A centipede? Now there is a new twist. What I didn't know - or didn't remember knowing - is that dragons - or at least one - were afraid of centipedes.]
Source: Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, vol. 5, p. 296, entry by E. Dale Saunders.
Henri Joly said in his Legend in Japanese Art (published by John Lane Co., p. 22) that he is "...the equivalent of Kuvera the Hindoo god of riches... shown in full armour, with a fierce expression, carrying in his right hand a small pagoda shaped shrine, and in the left a lance. The latter attribute is responsible for his erroneous description amongst the Gods of war." At least we have another vote for a right-handed stupa. Later Joly describes Bishamon as "... depicted with a blue face, clad in armour and carrying a pagoda in the left hand, a sceptre in the right one... or a lance, or three-pointed halberd..." Ibid., p. 140) Right-handed pagoda again? However, in Joly's defense he may be quoting Eitel, but even this is unclear.¶Joly and others note the connection between Prince Shotoku (572-621: 聖徳太子 or しょうとくたいし) and Bishamon. Like all other accounts there are several variations and here is Joly's: Shotoku, a defender of Buddhism, was struggling with Moriya, a non-Buddhist. Bishamon appeared before Shotoku as an old man and for whatever reason that won the day. ¶Bishamon also rules over the yakshas which are semi-divine beings which range from troublesome to helpful.
In an 1886 catalogue compiled by William Anderson for the collection of Chinese and Japanese paintings in the British Museum Bishamon is said to have saved the life of Shotoku when the god had taken the form of an old man. "This story, however, does not imply that Bishamon was a Buddhist Mars, but merely that success in war was one of the many rewards at his disposal."
In The Gods of Northern Buddhism: Their History and Iconography by Alice Getty (Courier Dover Publications, 1988, p. 167) weighs in on the left-right divide: Bishamon "...is represented with armour ornamented with the seven precious jewels, and is generally standing on one or two demons. In his left hand he holds either a small shrine or flaming pearl, while in his right is a jewelled lance... [¶] The maņi, or jewel, on top of his staff, is believed to signify 'completeness of fortune and virtue' The small caitya, or shrine, represent the Iron Tower in India where Nāgārjuna found the Buddhist scriptures." In an illustration Bishamon "...is represented looking at the shrine, for, as one of the guardians of Buddhism, he must keep watch over its greatest treasures..."
This author doesn't take sides in the "Which hand holds the stupa?" conundrum: "Of the Four Heavenly Kings... who guarded the four directions, Bishamon was considered the most important since he had charge of the north, the direction of the greatest peril in Buddhist cosmology."
Quoted from: Heart's Flower: The Life and Poetry of Shinkei, by Esperanza U. Ramirez-Christensen, Stanford University Press, 1994, pp. 33-4 |
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Bishamonkikkō |
毘沙門亀甲
びしゃもん.きっこう |
This is the name of the pattern of the armor often seen on the figure Bishamon although it does not appear in the entry immediately above this one. It contains the characters for Bishamon and tortoiseshell.
This is also related to the kensaki (剣先 or けんさき) or sword tip pattern. 1 |
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Blue and white porcelain |
Detail from a Ming vase below
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An innovative 13th c. use of cobalt for underglaze decoration 1 |
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